@page
@node Modules
@chapter Modules
@cindex modules

[FIXME: somewhat babbling; should be reviewed by someone who understands
modules, once the new module system is in place]

When programs become large, naming conflicts can occur when a function
or global variable defined in one file has the same name as a function
or global variable in another file.  Even just a @emph{similarity}
between function names can cause hard-to-find bugs, since a programmer
might type the wrong function name.

The approach used to tackle this problem is called @emph{information
encapsulation}, which consists of packaging functional units into a
given name space that is clearly separated from other name spaces.
@cindex encapsulation
@cindex information encapsulation
@cindex name space

The language features that allow this are usually called @emph{the
module system} because programs are broken up into modules that are
compiled separately (or loaded separately in an interpreter).

Older languages, like C, have limited support for name space
manipulation and protection.  In C a variable or function is public by
default, and can be made local to a module with the @code{static}
keyword.  But you cannot reference public variables and functions from
another module with different names.

More advanced module systems have become a common feature in recently
designed languages: ML, Python, Perl, and Modula 3 all allow the
@emph{renaming} of objects from a foreign module, so they will not
clutter the global name space.
@cindex name space - private

@menu
* Scheme and modules::
* The Guile module system::
* Dynamic Libraries::		Loading libraries of compiled code at run time.
* Dynamic Linking from Marius::
@end menu


@node Scheme and modules
@section Scheme and modules

Scheme, as defined in R4RS, does @emph{not} have a module system at all.

Aubrey Jaffer, mostly to support his portable Scheme library SLIB,
implemented a provide/require mechanism for many Scheme implementations.
Library files in SLIB @emph{provide} a feature, and when user programs
@emph{require} that feature, the library file is loaded in.

For example, the file @file{random.scm} in the SLIB package contains the
line
@smalllisp
(provide 'random)
@end smalllisp
so to use its procedures, a user would type
@smalllisp
(require 'random)
@end smalllisp
and they would magically become available, @emph{but still have the same
names!}  So this method is nice, but not as good as a full-featured
module system.


@node The Guile module system
@section The Guile module system

In 1996 Tom Lord implemented a full-featured module system for Guile
which allows loading Scheme source files into a private name space.

This module system is regarded as being rather idiosyncratic, and will
probably change to something more like the ML module system, so for now
I will simply describe how it works for a couple of simple cases.

First of all, the Guile module system sets up a hierarchical name space,
and that name space can be represented like Unix pathnames preceded by a
@key{#} character.  The root name space for all Guile-supplied modules
is called @code{ice-9}.

So for example, the SLIB interface, contained in
@file{$srcdir/ice-9/slib.scm}, starts out with
@smalllisp
(define-module (ice-9 slib))
@end smalllisp
and a user program can use
@smalllisp
(use-modules (ice-9 slib))
@end smalllisp
to have access to all procedures and variables defined within the slib
module with @code{(define-public ...)}.

So here are the functions involved:
@c begin (scm-doc-string "boot-9.scm" "define-module")
@deffn syntax define-module module-specification
@var{module-specification} is of the form @code{(hierarchy file)}.  One
example of this is
@smalllisp
(use-modules (ice-9 slib))
@end smalllisp
define-module makes this module available to Guile programs under the
given @var{module-specification}.
@end deffn
@c end

@c begin (scm-doc-string "boot-9.scm" "define-public")
@deffn syntax define-public @dots{}
Makes a procedure or variable available to programs that use the current
module.
@end deffn
@c end

@c begin (scm-doc-string "boot-9.scm" "use-modules")
@deffn syntax use-modules module-specification
@var{module-specification} is of the form @code{(hierarchy file)}.  One
example of this is
@smalllisp
(use-modules (ice-9 slib))
@end smalllisp
use-modules allows the current Guile program to use all publicly defined
procedures and variables in the module denoted by
@var{module-specification}.
@end deffn
@c end

[FIXME: must say more, and explain, and also demonstrate a private name
space use, and demonstrate how one would do Python's "from Tkinter
import *" versus "import Tkinter".  Must also add something about paths
and standards for contributed modules.]

@c docstring begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "standard-eval-closure")
@deffn primitive standard-eval-closure module
@end deffn

Some modules are included in the Guile distribution; here are references
to the entries in this manual which describe them in more detail:
@table @strong
@item boot-9
boot-9 is Guile's initialization module, and it is always loaded when
Guile starts up.
@item (ice-9 debug)
Mikael Djurfeldt's source-level debugging support for Guile
(@pxref{Debugger User Interface}).
@item (ice-9 threads)
Guile's support for multi threaded execution (@pxref{Scheduling}).
@item (ice-9 slib)
This module contains hooks for using Aubrey Jaffer's portable Scheme
library SLIB from Guile (@pxref{SLIB}).
@item (ice-9 jacal)
This module contains hooks for using Aubrey Jaffer's symbolic math
packge Jacal from Guile (@pxref{JACAL}).
@end table


@node Dynamic Libraries
@section Dynamic Libraries

Often you will want to extend Guile by linking it with some existing
system library.  For example, linking Guile with a @code{curses} or
@code{termcap} library would be useful if you want to implement a
full-screen user interface for a Guile application.  However, if you
were to link Guile with these libraries at compile time, it would bloat
the interpreter considerably, affecting everyone on the system even if
the new libraries are useful only to you.  Also, every time a new
library is installed, you would have to reconfigure, recompile and
relink Guile merely in order to provide a new interface.

Many Unix systems permit you to get around this problem by using
@dfn{dynamic loading}.  When a new library is linked, it can be made a
@dfn{dynamic library} by passing certain switches to the linker.  A
dynamic library does not need to be linked with an executable image at
link time; instead, the executable may choose to load it dynamically at
run time.  This is a powerful concept that permits an executable to link
itself with almost any library without reconfiguration, if it has been
written properly.

Guile's dynamic linking functions make it relatively easy to write a
module that incorporates code from third-party object code libraries.

@c ARGFIXME fname/library-file
@c docstring begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "dynamic-link")
@deffn primitive dynamic-link fname
Open the dynamic library @var{library-file}.  A library handle
representing the opened library is returned; this handle should be used
as the @var{lib} argument to the following functions.
@end deffn

@c docstring begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "dynamic-object?")
@deffn primitive dynamic-object? obj
Return @code{#t} if @var{obj} is a dynamic library handle, or @code{#f}
otherwise.
@end deffn

@c ARGFIXME dobj/dynobj/library-handle
@c docstring begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "dynamic-unlink")
@deffn primitive dynamic-unlink dobj
Unlink the library represented by @var{library-handle},
and remove any imported symbols from the address space.
GJB:FIXME:DOC: 2nd version below:
Unlink the indicated object file from the application.  The
argument @var{dynobj} must have been obtained by a call to
@code{dynamic-link}.  After @code{dynamic-unlink} has been
called on @var{dynobj}, its content is no longer accessible.
@end deffn

@c ARGFIXME symb/func/function dobj/lib/dynobj
@c docstring begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "dynamic-func")
@deffn primitive dynamic-func name dobj
Search the dynamic object @var{dobj} for the C function
indicated by the string @var{name} and return some Scheme
handle that can later be used with @code{dynamic-call} to
actually call the function.

Regardless whether your C compiler prepends an underscore @samp{_} to
the global names in a program, you should @strong{not} include this
underscore in @var{function}.  Guile knows whether the underscore is
needed or not and will add it when necessary.
@end deffn

@c ARGFIXME lib-thunk/func/function lib/dobj/dynobj
@c docstring begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "dynamic-call")
@deffn primitive dynamic-call func dobj
Call @var{lib-thunk}, a procedure of no arguments.  If @var{lib-thunk}
is a string, it is assumed to be a symbol found in the dynamic library
@var{lib} and is fetched with @code{dynamic-func}.  Otherwise, it should
be a function handle returned by a previous call to @code{dynamic-func}.
The return value is unspecified.
GJB:FIXME:DOC 2nd version below
Call the C function indicated by @var{function} and @var{dynobj}.  The
function is passed no arguments and its return value is ignored.  When
@var{function} is something returned by @code{dynamic-func}, call that
function and ignore @var{dynobj}.  When @var{function} is a string (or
symbol, etc.), look it up in @var{dynobj}; this is equivalent to

@smallexample
(dynamic-call (dynamic-func @var{function} @var{dynobj} #f))
@end smallexample

Interrupts are deferred while the C function is executing (with
@code{SCM_DEFER_INTS}/@code{SCM_ALLOW_INTS}).
@end deffn

@c ARGFIXME func/proc/function dobj/dynobj
@c docstring begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "dynamic-args-call")
@deffn primitive dynamic-args-call func dobj args
Call @var{proc}, a dynamically loaded function, passing it the argument
list @var{args} (a list of strings).  As with @code{dynamic-call},
@var{proc} should be either a function handle or a string, in which case
it is first fetched from @var{lib} with @code{dynamic-func}.

@var{proc} is assumed to return an integer, which is used as the return
value from @code{dynamic-args-call}.

GJB:FIXME:DOC 2nd version below
Call the C function indicated by @var{function} and @var{dynobj}, just
like @code{dynamic-call}, but pass it some arguments and return its
return value.  The C function is expected to take two arguments and
return an @code{int}, just like @code{main}:

@smallexample
int c_func (int argc, char **argv);
@end smallexample

The parameter @var{args} must be a list of strings and is converted into
an array of @code{char *}.  The array is passed in @var{argv} and its
size in @var{argc}.  The return value is converted to a Scheme number
and returned from the call to @code{dynamic-args-call}.
@end deffn

@c docstring begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "c-registered-modules")
@deffn primitive c-registered-modules
Return a list of the object code modules that have been imported into
the current Guile process.  Each element of the list is a pair whose
car is the name of the module, and whose cdr is the function handle
for that module's initializer function.  The name is the string that
has been passed to scm_register_module_xxx.
@end deffn

@c docstring begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "c-clear-registered-modules")
@deffn primitive c-clear-registered-modules
Destroy the list of modules registered with the current Guile process.
The return value is unspecified.  @strong{Warning:} this function does
not actually unlink or deallocate these modules, but only destroys the
records of which modules have been loaded.  It should therefore be used
only by module bookkeeping operations.
@end deffn

[FIXME: provide a brief example here of writing the C hooks for an
object code module, and using dynamic-link and dynamic-call to load the
module.]


@node Dynamic Linking from Marius
@section Dynamic Linking from Marius

@c NJFIXME primitive documentation here duplicates (and is generally
@c better than) documentation for the same primitives earlier on.

Most modern Unices have something called @dfn{shared libraries}.  This
ordinarily means that they have the capability to share the executable
image of a library between several running programs to save memory and
disk space.  But generally, shared libraries give a lot of additional
flexibility compared to the traditional static libraries.  In fact,
calling them `dynamic' libraries is as correct as calling them `shared'.

Shared libraries really give you a lot of flexibility in addition to the
memory and disk space savings.  When you link a program against a shared
library, that library is not closely incorporated into the final
executable.  Instead, the executable of your program only contains
enough information to find the needed shared libraries when the program
is actually run.  Only then, when the program is starting, is the final
step of the linking process performed.  This means that you need not
recompile all programs when you install a new, only slightly modified
version of a shared library.  The programs will pick up the changes
automatically the next time they are run.

Now, when all the necessary machinery is there to perform part of the
linking at run-time, why not take the next step and allow the programmer
to explicitly take advantage of it from within his program?  Of course,
many operating systems that support shared libraries do just that, and
chances are that Guile will allow you to access this feature from within
your Scheme programs.  As you might have guessed already, this feature
is called @dfn{dynamic linking}@footnote{Some people also refer to the
final linking stage at program startup as `dynamic linking', so if you
want to make yourself perfectly clear, it is probably best to use the
more technical term @dfn{dlopening}, as suggested by Gordon Matzigkeit
in his libtool documentation.}

As with many aspects of Guile, there is a low-level way to access the
dynamic linking apparatus, and a more high-level interface that
integrates dynamically linked libraries into the module system.

@menu
* Low level dynamic linking::
* Compiled Code Modules::
* Dynamic Linking and Compiled Code Modules::
@end menu

@node Low level dynamic linking
@subsection Low level dynamic linking

When using the low level procedures to do your dynamic linking, you have
complete control over which library is loaded when and what get's done
with it.

@deffn primitive dynamic-link library
Find the shared library denoted by @var{library} (a string) and link it
into the running Guile application.  When everything works out, return a
Scheme object suitable for representing the linked object file.
Otherwise an error is thrown.  How object files are searched is system
dependent.

Normally, @var{library} is just the name of some shared library file
that will be searched for in the places where shared libraries usually
reside, such as in @file{/usr/lib} and @file{/usr/local/lib}.
@end deffn

@deffn primitive dynamic-object? val
Determine whether @var{val} represents a dynamically linked object file.
@end deffn

@deffn primitive dynamic-unlink dynobj
Unlink the indicated object file from the application.  The argument
@var{dynobj} should be one of the values returned by
@code{dynamic-link}.  When @code{dynamic-unlink} has been called on
@var{dynobj}, it is no longer usable as an argument to the functions
below and you will get type mismatch errors when you try to.
@end deffn

@deffn primitive dynamic-func function dynobj
Search the C function indicated by @var{function} (a string or symbol)
in @var{dynobj} and return some Scheme object that can later be used
with @code{dynamic-call} to actually call this function.  Right now,
these Scheme objects are formed by casting the address of the function
to @code{long} and converting this number to its Scheme representation.

Regardless whether your C compiler prepends an underscore @samp{_} to
the global names in a program, you should @strong{not} include this
underscore in @var{function}.  Guile knows whether the underscore is
needed or not and will add it when necessary.
@end deffn

@deffn primitive dynamic-call function dynobj
Call the C function indicated by @var{function} and @var{dynobj}.  The
function is passed no arguments and its return value is ignored.  When
@var{function} is something returned by @code{dynamic-func}, call that
function and ignore @var{dynobj}.  When @var{function} is a string (or
symbol, etc.), look it up in @var{dynobj}; this is equivalent to

@smallexample
(dynamic-call (dynamic-func @var{function} @var{dynobj} #f))
@end smallexample

Interrupts are deferred while the C function is executing (with
@code{SCM_DEFER_INTS}/@code{SCM_ALLOW_INTS}).
@end deffn

@deffn primitive dynamic-args-call function dynobj args
Call the C function indicated by @var{function} and @var{dynobj}, just
like @code{dynamic-call}, but pass it some arguments and return its
return value.  The C function is expected to take two arguments and
return an @code{int}, just like @code{main}:

@smallexample
int c_func (int argc, char **argv);
@end smallexample

The parameter @var{args} must be a list of strings and is converted into
an array of @code{char *}.  The array is passed in @var{argv} and its
size in @var{argc}.  The return value is converted to a Scheme number
and returned from the call to @code{dynamic-args-call}.
@end deffn

When dynamic linking is disabled or not supported on your system,
the above functions throw errors, but they are still available.

Here is a small example that works on GNU/Linux:

@smallexample
(define libc-obj (dynamic-link "libc.so"))
libc-obj
@result{} #<dynamic-object "libc.so">
(dynamic-args-call 'rand libc-obj '())
@result{} 269167349
(dynamic-unlink libc-obj)
libc-obj
@result{} #<dynamic-object "libc.so" (unlinked)>
@end smallexample

As you can see, after calling @code{dynamic-unlink} on a dynamically
linked library, it is marked as @samp{(unlinked)} and you are no longer
able to use it with @code{dynamic-call}, etc.  Whether the library is
really removed from you program is system-dependent and will generally
not happen when some other parts of your program still use it.  In the
example above, @code{libc} is almost certainly not removed from your
program because it is badly needed by almost everything.

The functions to call a function from a dynamically linked library,
@code{dynamic-call} and @code{dynamic-args-call}, are not very powerful.
They are mostly intended to be used for calling specially written
initialization functions that will then add new primitives to Guile.
For example, we do not expect that you will dynamically link
@file{libX11} with @code{dynamic-link} and then construct a beautiful
graphical user interface just by using @code{dynamic-call} and
@code{dynamic-args-call}.  Instead, the usual way would be to write a
special Guile<->X11 glue library that has intimate knowledge about both
Guile and X11 and does whatever is necessary to make them inter-operate
smoothly.  This glue library could then be dynamically linked into a
vanilla Guile interpreter and activated by calling its initialization
function.  That function would add all the new types and primitives to
the Guile interpreter that it has to offer.

From this setup the next logical step is to integrate these glue
libraries into the module system of Guile so that you can load new
primitives into a running system just as you can load new Scheme code.

There is, however, another possibility to get a more thorough access to
the functions contained in a dynamically linked library.  Anthony Green
has written @file{libffi}, a library that implements a @dfn{foreign
function interface} for a number of different platforms.  With it, you
can extend the Spartan functionality of @code{dynamic-call} and
@code{dynamic-args-call} considerably.  There is glue code available in
the Guile contrib archive to make @file{libffi} accessible from Guile.

@node Compiled Code Modules
@subsection Putting Compiled Code into Modules

The new primitives that you add to Guile with @code{gh_new_procedure} or
with any of the other mechanisms are normally placed into the same
module as all the other builtin procedures (like @code{display}).
However, it is also possible to put new primitives into their own
module.

The mechanism for doing so is not very well thought out and is likely to
change when the module system of Guile itself is revised, but it is
simple and useful enough to document it as it stands.

What @code{gh_new_procedure} and the functions used by the snarfer
really do is to add the new primitives to whatever module is the
@emph{current module} when they are called.  This is analogous to the
way Scheme code is put into modules: the @code{define-module} expression
at the top of a Scheme source file creates a new module and makes it the
current module while the rest of the file is evaluated.  The
@code{define} expressions in that file then add their new definitions to
this current module.

Therefore, all we need to do is to make sure that the right module is
current when calling @code{gh_new_procedure} for our new primitives.
Unfortunately, there is not yet an easy way to access the module system
from C, so we are better off with a more indirect approach.  Instead of
adding our primitives at initialization time we merely register with
Guile that we are ready to provide the contents of a certain module,
should it ever be needed.

@deftypefun void scm_register_module_xxx (char *@var{name}, void (*@var{initfunc})(void))
Register with Guile that @var{initfunc} will provide the contents of the
module @var{name}.

The function @var{initfunc} should perform the usual initialization
actions for your new primitives, like calling @code{gh_new_procedure} or
including the file produced by the snarfer.  When @var{initfunc} is
called, the current module is a newly created module with a name as
indicated by @var{name}.  Each definition that is added to it will be
automatically exported.

The string @var{name} indicates the hierachical name of the new module.
It should consist of the individual components of the module name
separated by single spaces.  That is, the Scheme module name @code{(foo
bar)}, which is a list, should be written as @code{"foo bar"} for the
@var{name} parameter.

You can call @code{scm_register_module_xxx} at any time, even before
Guile has been initialized.  This might be useful when you want to put
the call to it in some initialization code that is magically called
before main, like constructors for global C++ objects.

An example for @code{scm_register_module_xxx} appears in the next section.
@end deftypefun

Now, instead of calling the initialization function at program startup,
you should simply call @code{scm_register_module_xxx} and pass it the
initialization function.  When the named module is later requested by
Scheme code with @code{use-modules} for example, Guile will notice that
it knows how to create this module and will call the initialization
function at the right time in the right context.

@node Dynamic Linking and Compiled Code Modules
@subsection Dynamic Linking and Compiled Code Modules

The most interesting application of dynamically linked libraries is
probably to use them for providing @emph{compiled code modules} to
Scheme programs.  As much fun as programming in Scheme is, every now and
then comes the need to write some low-level C stuff to make Scheme even
more fun.

Not only can you put these new primitives into their own module (see the
previous section), you can even put them into a shared library that is
only then linked to your running Guile image when it is actually
needed.

An example will hopefully make everything clear.  Suppose we want to
make the Bessel functions of the C library available to Scheme in the
module @samp{(math bessel)}.  First we need to write the appropriate
glue code to convert the arguments and return values of the functions
from Scheme to C and back.  Additionally, we need a function that will
add them to the set of Guile primitives.  Because this is just an
example, we will only implement this for the @code{j0} function, tho.

@smallexample
#include <math.h>
#include <guile/gh.h>

SCM
j0_wrapper (SCM x)
@{
  return gh_double2scm (j0 (gh_scm2double (x)));
@}

void
init_math_bessel ()
@{
  gh_new_procedure1_0 ("j0", j0_wrapper);
@}
@end smallexample

We can already try to bring this into action by manually calling the low
level functions for performing dynamic linking.  The C source file needs
to be compiled into a shared library.  Here is how to do it on
GNU/Linux, please refer to the @code{libtool} documentation for how to
create dynamically linkable libraries portably.

@smallexample
gcc -shared -o libbessel.so -fPIC bessel.c
@end smallexample

Now fire up Guile:

@smalllisp
(define bessel-lib (dynamic-link "./libbessel.so"))
(dynamic-call "init_math_bessel" bessel-lib)
(j0 2)
@result{} 0.223890779141236
@end smalllisp

The filename @file{./libbessel.so} should be pointing to the shared
library produced with the @code{gcc} command above, of course.  The
second line of the Guile interaction will call the
@code{init_math_bessel} function which in turn will register the C
function @code{j0_wrapper} with the Guile interpreter under the name
@code{j0}.  This function becomes immediately available and we can call
it from Scheme.

Fun, isn't it?  But we are only half way there.  This is what
@code{apropos} has to say about @code{j0}:

@smallexample
(apropos 'j0)
@print{} the-root-module: j0     #<primitive-procedure j0>
@end smallexample

As you can see, @code{j0} is contained in the root module, where all
the other Guile primitives like @code{display}, etc live.  In general,
a primitive is put into whatever module is the @dfn{current module} at
the time @code{gh_new_procedure} is called.  To put @code{j0} into its
own module named @samp{(math bessel)}, we need to make a call to
@code{scm_register_module_xxx}.  Additionally, to have Guile perform
the dynamic linking automatically, we need to put @file{libbessel.so}
into a place where Guile can find it.  The call to
@code{scm_register_module_xxx} should be contained in a specially
named @dfn{module init function}.  Guile knows about this special name
and will call that function automatically after having linked in the
shared library.  For our example, we add the following code to
@file{bessel.c}:

@smallexample
void scm_init_math_bessel_module ()
@{
  scm_register_module_xxx ("math bessel", init_math_bessel);
@}
@end smallexample

The general pattern for the name of a module init function is:
@samp{scm_init_}, followed by the name of the module where the
individual hierarchical components are concatenated with underscores,
followed by @samp{_module}.  It should call
@code{scm_register_module_xxx} with the correct module name and the
appropriate initialization function.  When that initialization function
will be called, a newly created module with the right name will be the
@emph{current module} so that all definitions that the initialization
functions makes will end up in the correct module.

After @file{libbessel.so} has been rebuild, we need to place the shared
library into the right place.  When Guile tries to autoload the
@samp{(math bessel)} module, it looks not only for a file called
@file{math/bessel.scm} in its @code{%load-path}, but also for
@file{math/libbessel.so}.  So all we need to do is to create a directory
called @file{math} somewhere in Guile's @code{%load-path} and place
@file{libbessel.so} there.  Normally, the current directory @file{.} is
in the @code{%load-path}, so we just use that for this example.

@smallexample
% mkdir maths
% cd maths
% ln -s ../libbessel.so .
% cd ..
% guile
guile> (use-modules (math bessel))
guile> (j0 2)
0.223890779141236
guile> (apropos 'j0)
@print{} bessel: j0      #<primitive-procedure j0>
@end smallexample

That's it!

Note that we used a symlink to make @file{libbessel.so} appear in the
right spot.  This is probably not a bad idea in general.  The
directories that the @file{%load-path} normally contains are supposed to
contain only architecture independent files.  They are not really the
right place for a shared library.  You might want to install the
libraries somewhere below @samp{exec_prefix} and then symlink to them
from the architecture independent directory.  This will at least work on
heterogenous systems where the architecture dependent stuff resides in
the same place on all machines (which seems like a good idea to me
anyway).


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